Inclusive Strategies for Children with Autism: Behavioural Strategies
Strategie
inclusive per bambini con autismo: Strategie comportamentali
Colin Calleja
Department for Inclusion and Access to Learning, Faculty
of Education, L-Università ta’
Malta – colin.calleja@um.edu.mt
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6665-4304
Özge Boşnak
Bursa Uludag
Universitesi Bursa, Turkey
– ozgebosnak@uludag.edu.tr
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5208-9551
ABSTRACT
This
paper provides a comprehensive review of evidence-based behavioural strategies
for the successful inclusion of children with autism in general education
environments. The authors emphasize the importance of creating a truly
inclusive learning environment and implementing behavioural research-based
strategies to support the effective inclusion of children with autism. The
review includes behavioural strategies such as behavioural assessment and
approaches, review and practice, direct instruction, formative assessment and
feedback, and school-wide positive behaviour support. The paper is one of a
series of papers reviewing inclusive strategies for children with Autism.
Questo contributo raccoglie lo stato dell’arte delle
strategie comportamentali evidence-based per l’inclusione
efficace dei bambini con autismo nei contesti di scolarità non differenziale [general
education]. Gli autori sottolineano l’importanza
di creare un ambiente di apprendimento autenticamente inclusivo e di
implementare strategie basate sulla ricerca comportamentale per supportare l’inclusione
efficace dei bambini con autismo. La rassegna della letteratura scientifica
include strategie comportamentali quali: la valutazione e gli approcci
comportamentali; la revisione e la pratica; l’istruzione diretta; la
valutazione e il feedback formativi; e il supporto comportamentale positivo a
livello scolastico. L’articolo appartiene a una serie di documenti che prendono
in esame le strategie inclusive per bambini con autismo.
KEYWORDS
Inclusive education, General education classroom, Behavioural strategies, Children with autism
Inclusione, Classi non differenziali, Strategie
comportamentali, Bambini con autismo
AUTHORSHIP
Conceptualization (C. Calleja, Ö Boşnak);
Formal analysis (C. Calleja, Ö Boşnak); Investigation (C. Calleja, Ö Boşnak); Methodology (C. Calleja, Ö Boşnak); Writing
– original draft (C. Calleja,
Ö Boşnak); Writing – review & editing (C. Calleja, Ö Boşnak).
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
The Authors declare
no conflicts of interest.
RECEIVED
March 3, 2024
ACCEPTED
April 24, 2024
Autism,
a neurodevelopmental disorder identifiable from early childhood, profoundly
affects children’s daily lives, particularly in the realms of social
interaction and communication often leading to difficulties in routine
functions. Characterized by repetitive behaviours, fixation on specific
interests, and engagement in particular activities, autism is classified as a
neurodevelopmental disorder (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders-5, 2013). The authors propose that with tailored adaptations,
children on the autism spectrum can seamlessly integrate into mainstream
education, actively participating alongside their same-age peers. This stance
is supported by research, emphasizing the importance of inclusion as a crucial
educational strategy, as highlighted by Lindsay (2007), aimed at expanding
educational opportunities for students with specific needs.
Studies
conducted by Crosland and Dunlap (2012), Gavalda and Qinyi (2012), as well as Li et al. (2022) have indicated
that students diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) experience
positive outcomes when participating in mainstream inclusive classes with
additional support. Consequently, interventions for ASD focus on both
individualized and systemic approaches to promote inclusive education. This
discussion addresses the need to review recent developments in research field
studies that inform and advance interventions for fostering inclusivity, as
highlighted by Crosland and Dunlap (2012).
This
article explores effective strategies for integrating children with autism into
mainstream educational settings, drawing inspiration from Mitchell’s (2014)
work on inclusive strategies for children with special needs. Early detection
of autism significantly influences daily functioning, particularly in social
interaction and communication, with characteristic repetitive behaviours and
specific interest fixation. Advocating for complete inclusion, the authors cite
research supporting the benefits of inclusive classrooms for students with
autism spectrum disorders (ASD) (Crosland & Dunlap, 2012; Gavalda & Qinyi, 2012;
Mengyao et al., 2022). Emphasizing the importance of tailored interventions,
the paper delves into behavioural strategies, including behavioural assessment,
direct instruction, and school-wide positive behaviour support, building on
Mitchell’s identified evidence-based inclusive strategies. The authors stress
the need for ongoing research to further enhance inclusive education for
children with autism, concluding with a discussion on future research
directions in this field.
The
research gathered studies by employing subject headings established as
inclusive strategies by Mitchell (2014), who delineated 24 evidence-based
inclusive strategies. Each of these strategies underwent an individual search
during the literature review, and the resulting studies were examined within
their respective categories. The research utilized the expansive HyDi database,
made available by the University of Malta library service. This comprehensive
database grants access to various databases, including the Education Database,
ProQuest Central, Social Science Database, Springer, and EBSCOhost.
For
inclusion in this extensive review, each article underwent assessment based on
multiple criteria. Firstly, the article needed to outline the utilization of an
evidence-based intervention for at least one participant diagnosed with autism
spectrum disorder (ASD). Secondly, the articles were required to incorporate at
least one inclusive strategy. Thirdly, the research had to be executed within
an inclusive setting and presented in the English language. Lastly, the
articles had to be authored after the year 2010. Consequently, 36 studies
meeting these criteria were identified and subjected to evaluation in this
study.
Behavioural
interventions often include indirect elements that enable the achievement of
targeted goals, such as emotional education, emotion expression, and emotion
recognition. These intermediary components differentiate behavioural
interventions from conventional behavioural interventions, which directly
address the specific behaviours through education or behaviour modification
(Schieltz et al., 2022). Studies on this topic conducted with children with
autism since 2010 are summarized in Table 1.
|
Sample |
Age |
Design |
Intervention |
Findings |
|
|
Carpenter., et al., 2020 |
104 children (5 Female, 17 male children with
autism) |
16-31 months |
Quantitative |
Tablet-based behavioural assessment for
eliciting and detecting one type of risk behaviour |
Computational coding of facial
movements and expressions via a tablet-based assessment can detect
differences in affective expression, one of the early, core features of ASD. |
|
Fears., et al., 2023 |
35 children (16 children with normal development, 16
male, 3 female children with autism) |
6-43 months |
Mixed-effects model |
Imitative gesturing between autistic
and neurotypical development during human-robot interaction |
Autistic individuals imitated the robot
less accurately and used less work at the shoulder compared to neurotypical
individuals. |
|
Geier., et al., 2012 |
54 children with autism |
2-16 years old |
Prospective cross-sectional |
Systematically
and quantitatively, examines health, physical and behavioural problems |
Eating
problems, behavioural problems, and obsessive-compulsive behaviours, were
reported by the parents to be the most serious and problematic. |
|
Gillis., Callahan., Raymond, and Romanczyk., 2011 |
77 children (48 children with autism
and 29 children without ASD) |
2-12 years old |
Quantitative |
Development
of the Behavioural Assessment of Social Interactions |
The BASYC (Behavioural
Assessment of Social Interactions in Young Children) was primarily developed for the clinical
practitioner or educator to use as part of the intervention planning and
monitoring process for children with ASD. |
|
Hoch., Moore., McComas., and Symons.,
2010 |
1 boy with autism |
7 years |
Single Subject Experimental Analysis |
Test the
feasibility of an integrative biobehavioural analysis approach to examine the
role that arousal played in choice of activities |
Sequential
analysis showed that activity choice and HR (heart rate) were significantly
associated (i.e., activity choice sequentially dependent with the preceding
level of HR). |
|
Van Laarhoven.,
et al., 2021 |
5 young men |
19-21 years |
Pre-assessment screening phase using
direct observation |
Using
Wearable Biosensor Technology in Behavioural Assessment |
Wearable
physiological biomarker technology can be a useful and complementary tool
when conducting behavioural assessments, particularly for individuals with
limited verbal repertoires. |
|
Parsons., et al., 2012 |
3 men with autism |
22-41 years old |
Alternating treatments design |
Potential
Targets for behavioural assessment and intervention (Identifying indices of happiness
and unhappiness among adults with autism) |
All three
participants displayed more happiness indices in the happiness situation
relative to the unhappiness situation. |
|
Schieltz., et al., 2022 |
199 children with ASD |
18 m-12 y |
Descriptive |
Behavioural assessment and treatment
via telehealth |
These results demonstrate the
effectiveness of the telehealth model for addressing the challenging
behaviour needs of children with ASD globally and highlight areas in need of
additional evaluation (e.g., drop-outs, cancellations) to determine the
conditions under which telehealth could be best used. |
|
de Vaan., et al., 2015 |
7 boys and 11 girls with ASD |
11-50y |
Observation |
Behavioural assessment |
Observation of autism in people with
sensory and intellectual disabilities showed high inter-rater reliability,
internal consistency of scales, and content and construct validity. |
Table 1. Behavioural assessment and approaches articles.
In
the analysis of the conducted studies, the cohort comprised 369 individuals
diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. Among these, 49 were identified as
male, 19 as female, and 301 lacked gender specification. The age distribution
within the cohort ranged from 6 months to 50 years for individuals diagnosed
with autism.
Upon
reviewing the methodological approaches employed in these studies, one
investigation adopted a two-group descriptive design, as reported by Schieltz
et al. in 2022. In contrast, another study utilized observational methods, as
documented by de Vaan et al. in 2015. Interestingly, both studies implemented
identical interventions, as indicated by Schieltz et al. in 2022 and de Vaan et
al. in 2015. On the other hand, additional studies employed quantitative
methods, as documented by Carpenter et al. (2020) and Gillis, Callahan,
Raymond, and Romanczyk (2011), both focusing on the
assessment process. Other methodological approaches encompassed a mixed-effects
model (Fears et al., 2023), prospective cross-sectional design (Geier et al.,
2012), single subject experimental analysis (Hoch, Moore, McComas, and Symons,
2010), pre-assessment screening phase using direct observation (Van Laarhoven et al., 2021), and alternating treatments
(Parsons et al., 2012). Among the articles, certain studies compared children
with autism to those with normal development (Carpenter et al., 2020; Fears et
al., 2023; Gillis, Callahan, Raymond, and Romanczyk,
2011). Furthermore, within articles involving behavioural assessments, some
studies integrated innovative technologies (Fears et al., 2023; Van Laarhoven et al., 2021).
Facilitating and
overseeing recurrent opportunities for learners to encounter identical skills
or concepts is imperative for the examination and application of instructional
strategies. This practice holds prominence within the framework of direct
instruction. Direct instruction (DI) stands as a comprehensive educational
strategy, aiming to cultivate student mastery through proactive engagement and
interactions with the instructor (Bereiter & Engelmann, 1966; Engelmann,
1980). DI encompasses both curricula, delineating what is to be taught, and
procedures, detailing how the instructional process unfolds. The intended
utilization of DI involves its implementation within a classroom setting,
facilitated by a qualified educator or paraprofessional (Cadette et al., 2016).
A compilation of studies addressing this instructional approach in the context
of children with autism, conducted since 2010, is presented in Table 2.
|
Author(s),
year |
Sample |
Age |
Design |
Intervention |
Findings |
|
Banda & Hart., 2010 |
2 girls with ASD |
8y |
Multiple baselines across participants |
Peer-to-peer social skills through
direct instruction |
Results indicated increased social
initiations in both participants and sharing behaviours in one of the
participants, but no increases in responses in both participants. |
|
Cadette., et al., 2016 |
3 boys with ASD |
15-17y |
Multiple baselines across behaviours |
Direct instruction on answering “wh- “questions |
Using a multiple probe design across
behaviours, results indicated the participants mastered two of the three ‘‘wh’’ question types and made progress with the remaining
question type. |
|
Flores., et al., 2013 |
18 boys with ASD |
7-13y |
Curriculum-based assessment |
Direct instruction on reading
comprehension and language skills. |
One-way analyses of variance indicated
that there were significant differences in students’ skills over time. |
|
Flores and Ganz., 2014 |
13 children with ASD |
4-10 y |
Pre-test/ Post-test |
Language intervention |
t-test indicated that there was a
statistically significant difference in student performance for the group who
received direct instruction. |
|
Flores, Schweek
and Hinton., 2016 |
3 male, 1 female children with autism |
4y |
Multiple probe
across language behaviors |
Language intervention using Direct
Instruction |
12 weeks of instruction, resulting in
improved language skills |
|
Frampton., et al., 2020 |
3 boys with ASD |
10-15y |
Multiple probe designs across
participants |
Feasibility and preliminary efficacy of
direct instruction |
The students demonstrated improved
performance, positive affect, and overall timely completion of exercises.
Taken together, these findings suggest that DI may be feasible for some
students with ASD who utilize Speech Generating Devices. |
|
Head., et al., 2018 |
2 boys and 1 girl |
10-16y |
A multiple-probe
across behaviors |
Direct instruction on reading
comprehension |
The findings of this study support the
efficacy of DI for students with autism and will eventually help establish DI
as an evidence-based practice for this population. |
|
Kamps., et al., 2016 |
53 boys and 9 girls |
5-6y |
Descriptive |
Direct instruction using the Reading
Mastery |
All participants met the criteria as
beginning readers, based on assessments at the beginning and middle of Kindergarten. |
|
Shillingsburg., et al., 2014 |
15 boys and 3 girls with ASD |
4-12y |
Pretest-Posttest
|
Direct Instruction Language for
learning curriculum |
Comparing language skills across
groups, children already exposed to the intervention exhibited significantly
higher language skills than their non-exposed waitlist counterparts. |
|
Thompson., Wood., Test., and
Cease-Cook., 2012 |
3 male with
autism |
6-8y |
Multiple probe designs across
participants |
Direct instructions on telling time |
Functional relation between direct
instruction and student’s ability to tell time to the five-minute increment
using analog clocks. |
|
Thompson., et al., 2019 |
3 boys and 1 girl with ASD |
7-10y |
Multiple baselines across students |
Small group direct instruction |
Results indicated a functional relation
between the intervention and student response. |
|
Wolfe., et al., 2018 |
2 boys with ASD |
4-7y |
Multiple baselines across language
skills. |
Language for learning for producing
generalization |
Results indicate that Language for
Learning was effective in producing generalizations to untrained visual
stimuli and to a novel instructor for one skill, but that responding was
tightly controlled by the specific sequence of verbal instructions used
within the curriculum for other skills. |
Table 2. Review and practice and direct instruction articles.
Upon
evaluating these studies, it is discerned that a total of 135 individuals
diagnosed with autism participated, comprising 105 males and 17 females. The
age range of the involved children with autism spanned from 4 to 17 years.
An
examination of the methodologies employed in the studies reveals that four of
them adopted the approach of employing multiple baselines across participants
(Banda & Hart, 2010; Frampton, et al., 2020; Thompson., Wood., Test., and
Cease-Cook., 2012; Thompson, et al., 2019). Meanwhile, three studies employed
multiple baselines across behaviours (Cadette et al., 2016; Flores, Schweek and Hinton., 2016; Head, et al., 2018; Wolfe, et
al., 2018). One study utilized a curriculum-based assessment (Flores et al.,
2013), and another study applied a descriptive design (Kamps et al., 2016).
Additionally, a pre-test/post-test design was employed in one study (Flores and
Ganz., 2014; Shillingsburg, et al., 2014).
Predominantly, the studies featured a single-subject design. Commonly, direct
instruction was implemented across diverse skills such as language learning (Flores
and Ganz., 2014; Flores, Schweek and Hinton., 2016; Wolfe
et al., 2018), social skills (Banda & Hart, 2010), and time-telling
proficiency (Thompson., Wood., Test., and Cease-Cook., 2012).
Formative
assessment serves the purpose of monitoring student learning progress and
furnishing ongoing feedback that proves beneficial for both students and
educators in refining instructional methods. Specifically, formative
evaluations aid students in recognizing their areas of proficiency and areas
that necessitate improvement, prompting a targeted focus on enhancement. In
contrast, summative assessments are designed to appraise student learning by
assessing it against a predetermined benchmark or standard upon the completion
of a unit of instruction (Tay & Kee, 2019). In accordance with the
stipulated criteria for the article search, only a single study met the
specified parameters. The abstract of this identified article is presented in Table 3.
|
Sample |
Age |
Design |
Intervention |
Findings |
|
|
Aidonopoulou-Read, 2019 |
2 female, 3 male with autism |
? |
Video observation |
Examine the impact of a modified
formative assessment model |
The
introduction of engaging resources improved engagement, but tangible rewards
had a negative effect on attainment. Praise had a positive effect on
engagement and attainment. |
|
Clawson et
al., 2014 |
4 female, 34 male with autism and 5
female 26 control participants |
8-18y |
Quantitative |
Observation of error-related feedback
by others |
Findings
suggest that the social context of the task and motivational significance of
the confederate’s performance did not limit feedback processing in ASD. |
|
Gunby and
Rapp., 2014 |
1 female, 2 male with autism |
5-6y |
Nonconcurrent multiple baseline design
across participants |
Behavioral skills training with
in situ feedback on safe responding |
BSTwith in situ
feedback can be used to teach safe responding to abduction lures presented
after a high-p request sequence |
|
Haq., et
al., 2017 |
1 male, 1 female with autism |
6-10y |
Alternating treatments design embedded
within a multiple probe design across stimulus sets |
Efficacy of instructive feedback |
The efficacy
of instructive feedback may depend, in part, on learners’ behavior
during instructive feedback, such as attending and echoic behavior. |
|
Mackey and
Nelson., 2015 |
2 male with
autism |
19y |
Multiple-probe
design across targeted job behaviours, replicated across two participants |
Video
feedback (VFB) in improving the job-related behaviours |
The use of
VFB is one way that job-related behaviours of adolescents with ASD and other
disabilities can be positively influenced. |
|
Morton., et
al., 2023 |
3 male with
autism |
4-5y |
Multiple baseline across participants |
Play
responses following instructive feedback |
Effectiveness
of teaching tacts to individuals with ASD, and that
using instructive feedback during tact training can help promote the
acquisition of play skills. |
|
Reed., 2023 |
24 male 4 female with autism and 21
male 7 female with typically developing children |
|
Quantitative |
Interference
from previous verbal feedback |
There was
little difference of feedback type on initial set learning, but children with
ASD exhibited difficulty in shifting this initial learning, which was worse
when verbal feedback was used. This is a novel finding that has implications
for slower set-shifting and for teaching strategies. |
|
1 male, 5 female teachers, and 5 male 1
male student with ASD |
10-14y |
Case-study |
Effective questioning and feedback |
||
|
Tullis., Marya., and Shillingsburg., 2019 |
1 male with autism |
6y |
A multiple-probe design across stimulus
sets |
Enhancing Instruction via Instructive
Feedback |
The results of the current
investigation are promising, and these data may lead to meaningful extensions
that further enhance both IF (instructive feedback) and AAC (augmentative or
alternative communication) methodologies for people with ASD. |
|
Unruh., et al., 2021 |
20 female, 89 male with autism and 28
female, 73 male typically developing controls |
Range 5-29y |
Quantitative |
Initial action output and
feedback‑guided motor behaviours |
Relative to controls, individuals with
ASD showed similar accuracy of initial grip force but reduced accuracy of
saccadic eye movements specific to older ages of our sample. |
|
Wei., and Machalicek.,
2021 |
2 males with autism |
4-9y |
multiple-baseline single-case
experimental design across interventionists and children |
Delayed video-feedback and pyramidal
training |
Each of the three paraprofessionals
demonstrated an immediate increase in their implementation fidelity of
incidental teaching strategies after the introduction of the training. |
Table 3. Formative assessment and feedback articles.
The
research engaged a cohort comprising 199 participants diagnosed with autism,
alongside 6 teachers. Among the participants, 37 were male, and 162 were female,
with ages ranging between 4 and 18 years. There were also 160 children with
typically development which were 40 female and 120 male.
Upon
scrutinizing the interventions employed in the studies, it is evident that two
of them incorporated video feedback (Mackey and Nelson, 2015; Wei and Machalicek, 2021). In contrast, three studies utilized
instructive feedback (Haq et al., 2017; Morton et al., 2023; Tullis, Marya, and
Shillingsburg, 2019). The remaining studies embraced
diverse feedback models, including modified formative assessment (Aidonopoulou-Read, 2019), error-related feedback (Clawson
et al., 2014), situ feedback (Gunby and Rapp, 2014), previous verbal feedback
(Reed, 2023), questioning and feedback (Tay and Kee, 2019), and feedback-guided
motor behaviours (Unruh et al., 2021).
Upon
reviewing the methodological approaches utilized in these studies, it is
evident that the majority employed a single-subject experimental design (Gunby
and Rapp, 2014; Haq et al., 2017; Mackey and Nelson, 2015; Morton et al., 2023;
Tullis, Marya, and Shillingsburg, 2019; Wei and Machalicek, 2021). Additionally, a quantitative design was
employed in three studies (Clawson et al., 2014; Reed, 2023; Unruh et al.,
2021). One study utilized video observation (Aidonopoulou-Read,
2019), and another adopted a case-study approach (Tay and Kee, 2019). Upon
evaluating the research findings, it becomes evident that formative assessment
consistently yields positive results.
Contemporary
research has demonstrated the efficacy of the Positive Behaviour Support (PBS)
method in fostering positive outcomes for young children exhibiting
disabilities and challenging behaviours (Carr et al., 1999; Dunlap, 2006). PBS,
as elucidated by Javaid et al. (2020), is a systematic approach designed to
impart more suitable behavioural patterns while furnishing the requisite
contextual support to curtail inappropriate behaviour among children grappling
with behavioural challenges. Emphasizing the importance of collaborative
efforts between families and educational institutions in devising and
sustaining interventions for children diagnosed with autism has been
underscored in the literature. Table 4 encapsulates an overview of
studies conducted since 2010, focusing on interventions for children with
autism.
|
Author(s),
year |
Sample |
Age |
Design |
Intervention |
Findings |
|
31 male with Autism |
8-13y |
Multiple
baselines across classrooms |
Virtual
positive behaviour support |
School-wide
positive behaviour support can be successfully applied to different
educational settings and suggest several implications for special and general
education schools. |
|
|
Javaid., et., al., 2020 |
1 boy with ASD |
18y |
Case study |
Positive behaviour support plan for
challenging behaviour |
Personal demands and wishes of
individual patients, with the PBSP, specifically tailored toward their needs
and conducted at an appropriate pace. |
|
8 boys with ASD |
6-10y |
A multiple-baseline design across
teachers with changing conditions |
Self-monitoring and performance
feedback |
Findings illustrated idiosyncratic
responding in that one teacher established and maintained high levels of TI
with SM alone, two required the addition of PFB but subsequently maintained
TI with SM alone, and one teacher required the combined treatment package to
be successful. |
Table 4. School-wide positive behaviour support articles.
Upon
evaluating the referenced studies, it is discerned that a cohort of 40
individuals diagnosed with autism participated in the research endeavours. The
entirety of the participants comprises male subjects, with ages ranging from 6
to 18 years within the cohort of children with autism. An examination of the
research methodologies reveals that Javaid et al. (2020) employed a case study
design in one study, while Mouzakitis, et al. (2015) and Alwahbi
(2022) employed a single-subject design in another. These investigations
encompassed diverse skill domains; specifically, Javaid et al. (2020) focused on
challenging behaviour, Mouzakitis, et al. (2015) concentrated on
self-monitoring techniques and Alwahbi (2022) used
virtual positive behaviour support . The outcomes of
the research indicate the effectiveness of the interventions implemented in
addressing the targeted issues.
In
summary, this academic paper scrutinizes studies investigating diverse
behavioural strategies and their impact on the daily life and functioning,
particularly in the realms of social interaction and communication, among
individuals with autism. The authors posit that the implementation of such
strategies holds the potential for the complete inclusion of children with
autism in mainstream education. Aligning with Lindsay’s (2007) emphasis on
inclusion, the paper explores specific strategies aimed at supporting the
successful inclusion of children on the autism spectrum.
The
meticulously outlined research methodology employed a systematic approach,
utilizing the HyDi database to identify studies, and adhering to rigorous
inclusion and exclusion criteria. Results are systematically presented under
distinct inclusive strategies, accompanied by a comprehensive examination of
studies conducted post-2010.
In
conclusion, this paper contributes significant insights to the field of
inclusive education for children with autism, advocating for customized
strategies to facilitate their seamless integration into mainstream educational
environments. The rigorous literature review, methodological precision, and
in-depth exploration of specific strategies collectively provide an invaluable
resource for educators, researchers, and policymakers. The paper concludes by
underscoring the imperative for continued research in this domain, recognizing
the dynamic nature of interventions and the perpetual demand for evidence-based
practices to enrich the educational journey of children with autism.
Aidonopoulou‐Read,
T. (2019, October 11). The conceptualisation of a modified formative assessment
model for non‐verbal students with autism and severe learning difficulties. British
Journal of Special Education, 47(1), 88–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.12290
Alwahbi, A. A.
(2022, July 25). The Efficacy of Virtual Positive Behavior
Support in a Special School for Students with ASD. Journal of Behavioral Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-022-09486-1
American
Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of
mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Banda,
D. R., & Hart, S. L. (2010, June). Increasing peer-to-peer social skills
through direct instruction of two elementary school girls with autism. Journal
of Research in Special Educational Needs, 10(2), 124–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-3802.2010.01149.x
Bereiter,
C., & Engelman, S. (1966). Teaching Disadvantaged Children in the
Preschool. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Cadette,
J. N., Wilson, C. L., Brady, M. P., Dukes, C., & Bennett, K. D. (2016, June
16). The Effectiveness of Direct Instruction in Teaching Students with Autism
Spectrum Disorder to Answer “Wh-” Questions. Journal
of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(9), 2968–2978. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2825-2
Carpenter,
K. L. H., Hahemi, J., Campbell, K., Lippmann, S. J.,
Baker, J. P., Egger, H. L., Espinosa, S., Vermeer, S., Sapiro, G., &
Dawson, G. (2020, September 14). Digital Behavioral
Phenotyping Detects Atypical Pattern of Facial Expression in Toddlers with
Autism. Autism Research, 14(3), 488–499. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.2391
Clawson,
A., Clayson, P. E., Worsham, W., Johnston, O., South, M., & Larson, M. J.
(2014, April). How about watching others? Observation of error-related feedback
by others in autism spectrum disorders. International Journal of
Psychophysiology, 92(1), 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2014.01.009
Crosland,
K., & Dunlap, G. (2012, May). Effective Strategies for the Inclusion of
Children With Autism in General Education
Classrooms. Behavior Modification, 36(3),
251–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445512442682
de
Vaan, G., Vervloed, M., Peters‐Scheffer, N. C., van
Gent, T., Knoors, H., & Verhoeven, L. (2015, June
8). Behavioural assessment of autism spectrum disorders in people with multiple
disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 60(2),
101–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/jir.12206
Engelmann,
S. (1980). Direct Instruction. Educational Technology.
Fears,
N. E., Sherrod, G. M., Blankenship, D., Patterson, R. M., Hynan,
L. S., Wijayasinghe, I., Popa, D. O., Bugnariu, N. L., & Miller, H. L. (2023, June). Motor
differences in autism during a human-robot imitative gesturing task. Clinical
Biomechanics, 106, 105987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2023.105987
Flores,
M. M., Nelson, C., Hinton, V., Franklin, T. M., Strozier, S. D., Terry, L.,
& Franklin, S. (2013). Teaching reading comprehension and language skills
to students with autism spectrum disorders and developmental disabilities using
direct instruction. Education & Training in Autism &
Developmental Disabilities, 48(1), 41–48.
Flores,
M. M., & Ganz, J. B. (2014, October 2). Comparison of Direct Instruction
and Discrete Trial Teaching on the Curriculum-based Assessment of Language
Performance of Students with Autism. Exceptionality, 22(4),
191–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2013.865533
Flores,
M. M., Schweck, K. B., & Hinton, V. (2016,
March). Teaching Language Skills to Preschool Students with Developmental
Delays and Autism Spectrum Disorder Using Language for Learning. Rural
Special Education Quarterly, 35(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1177/875687051603500102
Frampton,
S. E., Shillingsburg, M. A., & Simeone, P. J.
(2020, February 11). Feasibility and Preliminary Efficacy of Direct Instruction
for Individuals With Autism Utilizing
Speech-Generating Devices. Behavior
Analysis in Practice, 13(3), 648–658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-020-00412-3
Gavaldá, J. M.
S., & Qinyi, T. (2012). Improving the Process of
Inclusive Education in Children with ASD in Mainstream Schools. Procedia
- Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46,
4072–4076. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.200
GEIER,
D. A., KERN, J. K., & GEIER, M. R. (2012). A prospective
Cross-sectional Cohort Assessment of Health, Physical, and Behavioral
Problems in Autism Spectrum Disorders. PubMed Central (PMC). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3566881/
Gillis,
J. M., Callahan, E. H., & Romanczyk, R. G. (2011,
January). Assessment of social behavior in children
with autism: The development of the Behavioral
Assessment of Social Interactions in Young Children. Research in Autism
Spectrum Disorders, 5(1), 351–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.04.019
Gunby,
K. V., & Rapp, J. T. (2014, October 13). The use of behavioral
skills training and in situ feedback to protect children with autism from
abduction lures. Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis, 47(4), 856–860. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.173
Haq, S.
S., Zemantic, P. K., Kodak, T., LeBlanc, B., &
Ruppert, T. E. (2017, February 14). Examination of variables that affect the
efficacy of instructive feedback. Behavioral
Interventions, 32(3), 206–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1470
Head,
Flores, & Shippen. (2018). Effects
of Direct Instruction on Reading Comprehension for Individuals with Autism or
Developmental Disabilities. Vol. 53, No. 2 (June 2018), pp. 176-191 (16
pages)
Hoch,
J., Moore, T., McComas, J., & Symons, F. J. (2010). Arousal and activity
choice in autism: A single‐case assessment integrating autonomic and behavioral analysis. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 15(3), 119–133. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9861.2010.00056.x
Javaid,
A., Ghebru, S., Nawaz, J., Michael, D., Pearson, R.,
Rushforth, E., & Michael, G. (2020, October). Use of positive behaviour
support plan for challenging behaviour in autism. Progress in Neurology and
Psychiatry, 24(4), 14–16. https://doi.org/10.1002/pnp.681
Kamps,
D., Heitzman-Powell, L., Rosenberg, N., Mason, R., Schwartz, I., & Romine,
R. S. (2016, July 11). Effects of Reading Mastery as a Small Group Intervention
for Young Children with ASD. Journal of Developmental and Physical
Disabilities, 28(5), 703–722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-016-9503-3
Li, M.,
Lin, Y., Bao, T., Zhao, Q., Wang, Y., Li, M., Chen, Y., Qian, Y., Chen, L.,
& Zhu, D. (2022, April 30). Inclusive education of elementary students with
autism spectrum disorders in Shanghai, China: From the teachers’ perspective. BioScience Trends, 16(2), 142–150. https://doi.org/10.5582/bst.2022.01104
Lindsay,
G. (2007, March). Educational psychology and the effectiveness of inclusive
education/mainstreaming. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(1),
1–24. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709906x156881
Mackey,
M., & Nelson, G. (2015, October 23). Twins with autism: utilising video
feedback to improve job‐related behaviours. British Journal of Special
Education, 42(4), 390–410. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.12107
Mitchell,
D. (2014, January 10). What Really Works in Special and Inclusive Education.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203105313
Morton,
S. M., Campanaro, A. M., Vladescu, J. C., Sidener, T.
M., & Domanski, C. (2023, May 16). Emergent control for play responses
following instructive feedback for children with autism spectrum disorder. Behavioral Interventions, 38(3),
554–568. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.1954
Mouzakitis,
A., Codding, R. S., & Tryon, G. (2015, April 22). The Effects of
Self-Monitoring and Performance Feedback on the Treatment Integrity of Behavior Intervention Plan Implementation and
Generalization. Journal of Positive Behavior
Interventions, 17(4), 223–234. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300715573629
Parsons,
M. B., Reid, D. H., Bentley, E., Inman, A., & Lattimore, L. P. (2012,
June). Identifying Indices of Happiness and Unhappiness Among Adults With Autism: Potential Targets for Behavioral
Assessment and Intervention. Behavior
Analysis in Practice, 5(1), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03391814
Reed,
P. (2023, January 26). Individuals with autism spectrum disorder are
differentially sensitive to interference from previous verbal feedback. Autism,
27(7), 2011–2020. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613221150377
Schieltz,
K. M., O’Brien, M. J., Tsami, L., Call, N. A., & Lerman, D. C. (2022,
February 15). Behavioral Assessment and Treatment via
Telehealth for Children with Autism: From Local to Global Clinical
Applications. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 19(4), 2190. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042190
Shillingsburg, M.
A., Bowen, C. N., Peterman, R. K., & Gayman, M. D. (2014, May 2).
Effectiveness of the Direct Instruction Language for Learning Curriculum Among
Children Diagnosed With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Focus
on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 30(1), 44–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357614532498
Tay,
H., & Kee, K. (2019, January 1). Effective questioning and feedback for
learners with autism in an inclusive classroom. Cogent Education, 6(1),
1634920. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2019.1634920
Thompson,
J.; Wood, C. L.; Test, D. W.; & Cease-Cook, J. (2012). Effects of direct
instruction on telling time by students with autism. Journal of Direct Instruction, 12, 1–12.
Thompson,
J. L., Wood, C. L., Preston, A., & Stevenson, B. (2019). Teaching unison
responding during small-group direct instruction to students with autism
spectrum disorder who exhibit interfering behaviors. Education & Treatment of Children,
42(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2019.0001
Tullis,
C. A., Marya, V., & Alice Shillingsburg, M.
(2018, June 25). Enhancing Instruction via Instructive Feedback for a Child With Autism Using a Speech-Generating Device. The
Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 35(1),
103–112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40616-018-0096-z
Unruh,
K. E., McKinney, W. S., Bojanek, E. K., Fleming, K. K., Sweeney, J. A., &
Mosconi, M. W. (2021, July 10). Initial action output and feedback-guided motor
behaviors in autism spectrum disorder. Molecular
Autism, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-021-00452-8
Wei,
Q., & Machalicek, W. (2021, January 2). Delayed
video-feedback and pyramidal training is a promising approach to teach
incidental teaching to paraprofessionals in low-resource countries, but it may
not be sufficient to increase child mands. Evidence-Based
Communication Assessment and Intervention, 15(1), 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/17489539.2021.1876302
Wolfe,
K., Rispoli, M., Taylor, L., & Drasgow, E.
(2018). Investigating generalization difficulties during instruction in
language for learning. Advances in
Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 2(1), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41252-017-0049-x
Van Laarhoven, T. R., Johnson, J. W., Andzik,
N. R., Fernandes, L., Ackerman, M., Wheeler, M., Melody, K., Cornell, V., Ward,
G., & Kerfoot, H. (2021, January 8). Using Wearable Biosensor Technology in
Behavioral Assessment for Individuals with Autism
Spectrum Disorders and Intellectual Disabilities Who Experience Anxiety. Advances
in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 5(2), 156–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41252-020-00191-6